[section:next_float Floating-Point Representation Distance (ULP), and Finding Adjacent Floating-Point Values] [@http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_in_the_last_place Unit of Least Precision or Unit in the Last Place] is the gap between two different, but as close as possible, floating-point numbers. Most decimal values, for example 0.1, cannot be exactly represented as floating-point values, but will be stored as the [@http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point#Representable_numbers.2C_conversion_and_rounding closest representable floating-point]. Functions are provided for finding adjacent greater and lesser floating-point values, and estimating the number of gaps between any two floating-point values. The floating-point type (FPT) must have has a fixed number of bits in the representation. The number of bits may set at runtime, but must be the same for all numbers. For example, __NTL_quad_float type (fixed 128-bit representation), __NTL_RR type (arbitrary but fixed decimal digits, default 150) or __multiprecision __cpp_dec_float and__cpp_bin_float are fixed at runtime, but [*not] a type that extends the representation to provide an exact representation for any number, for example [@http://keithbriggs.info/xrc.html XRC eXact Real in C]. The accuracy of mathematical functions can be assessed and displayed in terms of __ULP, often as a ulps plot or by binning the differences as a histogram. Samples are evaluated using the implementation under test and compared with 'known good' representation obtained using a more accurate method. Other implementations, often using arbitrary precision arithmetic, for example __WolframAlpha are one source of references values. The other method, used widely in Boost.Math special functions, it to carry out the same algorithm, but using a higher precision type, typically using Boost.Multiprecision types like `cpp_bin_float_quad` for 128-bit (about 35 decimal digit precision), or `cpp_bin_float_50` (for 50 decimal digit precision). When converted to a particular machine representation, say `double`, say using a `static_cast`, the value is the nearest representation possible for the `double` type. This value cannot be 'wrong' by more than half a __ulp, and can be obtained using the Boost.Math function `ulp`. (Unless the algorithm is fundamentally flawed, something that should be revealed by 'sanity' checks using some independent sources). See some discussion and example plots by Cleve Moler of Mathworks [@https://blogs.mathworks.com/cleve/2017/01/23/ulps-plots-reveal-math-function-accurary/ ulps plots reveal math-function accuracy]. [section:nextafter Finding the Next Representable Value in a Specific Direction (nextafter)] [h4 Synopsis] `` #include `` namespace boost{ namespace math{ template FPT nextafter(FPT val, FPT direction); }} // namespaces [h4 Description - nextafter] This is an implementation of the `nextafter` function included in the C99 standard. (It is also effectively an implementation of the C99 `nexttoward` legacy function which differs only having a `long double` direction, and can generally serve in its place if required). [note The C99 functions must use suffixes f and l to distinguish `float` and `long double` versions. C++ uses the template mechanism instead.] Returns the next representable value after /x/ in the direction of /y/. If `x == y` then returns /x/. If /x/ is non-finite then returns the result of a __domain_error. If there is no such value in the direction of /y/ then returns an __overflow_error. [warning The template parameter FTP must be a floating-point type. An integer type, for example, will produce an unhelpful error message.] [tip Nearly always, you just want the next or prior representable value, so instead use `float_next` or `float_prior` below.] [h4 Examples - nextafter] The two representations using a 32-bit float either side of unity are: `` The nearest (exact) representation of 1.F is 1.00000000 nextafter(1.F, 999) is 1.00000012 nextafter(1/f, -999) is 0.99999994 The nearest (not exact) representation of 0.1F is 0.100000001 nextafter(0.1F, 10) is 0.100000009 nextafter(0.1F, 10) is 0.099999994 `` [endsect] [/section:nextafter Finding the Next Representable Value in a Specific Direction (nextafter)] [section:float_next Finding the Next Greater Representable Value (float_next)] [h4 Synopsis] `` #include `` namespace boost{ namespace math{ template FPT float_next(FPT val); }} // namespaces [h4 Description - float_next] Returns the next representable value which is greater than /x/. If /x/ is non-finite then returns the result of a __domain_error. If there is no such value greater than /x/ then returns an __overflow_error. Has the same effect as nextafter(val, (std::numeric_limits::max)()); [endsect] [/section:float_next Finding the Next Greater Representable Value (float_prior)] [section:float_prior Finding the Next Smaller Representable Value (float_prior)] [h4 Synopsis] `` #include `` namespace boost{ namespace math{ template FPT float_prior(FPT val); }} // namespaces [h4 Description - float_prior] Returns the next representable value which is less than /x/. If /x/ is non-finite then returns the result of a __domain_error. If there is no such value less than /x/ then returns an __overflow_error. Has the same effect as nextafter(val, -(std::numeric_limits::max)()); // Note most negative value -max. [endsect] [/section:float_prior Finding the Next Smaller Representable Value (float_prior)] [section:float_distance Calculating the Representation Distance Between Two floating-point Values (ULP) float_distance] Function float_distance finds the number of gaps/bits/ULP between any two floating-point values. If the significands of floating-point numbers are viewed as integers, then their difference is the number of ULP/gaps/bits different. [h4 Synopsis] `` #include `` namespace boost{ namespace math{ template FPT float_distance(FPT a, FPT b); }} // namespaces [h4 Description - float_distance] Returns the distance between /a/ and /b/: the result is always a signed integer value (stored in floating-point type FPT) representing the number of distinct representations between /a/ and /b/. Note that * `float_distance(a, a)` always returns 0. * `float_distance(float_next(a), a)` always returns -1. * `float_distance(float_prior(a), a)` always returns 1. The function `float_distance` is equivalent to calculating the number of ULP (Units in the Last Place) between /a/ and /b/ except that it returns a signed value indicating whether `a > b` or not. If the distance is too great then it may not be able to be represented as an exact integer by type FPT, but in practice this is unlikely to be a issue. [endsect] [/section:float_distance Calculating the Representation Distance Between Two floating-point Values (ULP) float_distance] [section:float_advance Advancing a floating-point Value by a Specific Representation Distance (ULP) float_advance] Function `float_advance` advances a floating-point number by a specified number of ULP. [h4 Synopsis] `` #include `` namespace boost{ namespace math{ template FPT float_advance(FPT val, int distance); }} // namespaces [h4 Description - float_advance] Returns a floating-point number /r/ such that `float_distance(val, r) == distance`. [endsect] [/section:float_advance] [section:ulp Obtaining the Size of a Unit In the Last Place - ULP] Function `ulp` gives the size of a unit-in-the-last-place for a specified floating-point value. [h4 Synopsis] `` #include `` namespace boost{ namespace math{ template FPT ulp(const FPT& x); template FPT ulp(const FPT& x, const Policy&); }} // namespaces [h4 Description - ulp] Returns one [@http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_in_the_last_place unit in the last place] of ['x]. Corner cases are handled as follows: * If the argument is a NaN, then raises a __domain_error. * If the argument is an infinity, then raises an __overflow_error. * If the argument is zero then returns the smallest representable value: for example for type `double` this would be either `std::numeric_limits::min()` or `std::numeric_limits::denorm_min()` depending whether denormals are supported (which have the values `2.2250738585072014e-308` and `4.9406564584124654e-324` respectively). * If the result is too small to represent, then returns the smallest representable value. * Always returns a positive value such that `ulp(x) == ulp(-x)`. [*Important:] The behavior of this function is aligned to that of [@http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Math.html#ulp%28double%29 Java's ulp function], please note however that this function should only ever be used for rough and ready calculations as there are enough corner cases to trap even careful programmers. In particular: * The function is asymmetrical, which is to say, given `u = ulp(x)` if `x > 0` then `x + u` is the next floating-point value, but `x - u` is not necessarily the previous value. Similarly, if `x < 0` then `x - u` is the previous floating-point value, but `x + u` is not necessarily the next value. The corner cases occur at power of 2 boundaries. * When the argument becomes very small, it may be that there is no floating-point value that represents one ULP. Whether this is the case or not depends not only on whether the hardware may ['sometimes] support denormals (as signalled by `std::numeric_limits::has_denorm`), but also whether these are currently enabled at runtime (for example on SSE hardware, the DAZ or FTZ flags will disable denormal support). In this situation, the `ulp` function may return a value that is many orders of magnitude too large. In light of the issues above, we recommend that: * To move between adjacent floating-point values always use __float_next, __float_prior or __nextafter (`std::nextafter` is another candidate, but our experience is that this also often breaks depending which optimizations and hardware flags are in effect). * To move several floating-point values away use __float_advance. * To calculate the edit distance between two floats use __float_distance. There is none the less, one important use case for this function: If it is known that the true result of some function is x[sub t] and the calculated result is x[sub c], then the error measured in ulp is simply [^fabs(x[sub t] - x[sub c]) / ulp(x[sub t])]. [endsect] [/section ulp] [endsect] [/ section:next_float Floating-Point Representation Distance (ULP), and Finding Adjacent Floating-Point Values] [/ Copyright 2008 John Maddock and Paul A. Bristow. Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt). ]